INTRODUCTION:

Starting from the 1950s, the period of transition into adulthood has been highly prolonged, in every post-industrial society (Arnett, 2000 and Shanahan, 2000). The latest trend sees elongated studying time period and increased focus on career while the normative ages of marrying and starting a family have also been shifted to later years (Arnett and Taber, 1994; White, 2003).

This has led to the development of a new age group extending from late teens to early 20’s (more specifically, 18-25 years) known as the emerging adulthood (Arnett, 1994).

The thinking process of emerging adult group diverges from the normative ideas of a family. This is a period of self-discovery and novel identity formation and should be dealt with entire sensibility (Arnett, 2000).

The theory of emerging adulthood proposed by Arnett in 2000, and later in 2004, talks about the importance of identity formation during these years. The sociological perspective of emerging adults’ choices and long terms commitments in life indicates that their interest towards career options, romantic relationships and worldwide views has expanded but the collective support for identity formation has largely decreased (Cote’ and Levine, 2002). The cultural and economic changes, along with other aspects of life, have further created diversity in the formation of identity for each emerging adult (Wallace and Kovatcheva, 1998).

Personality development and changes in emerging adults has become an upcoming topic of research. Hans Eysenck was a leading theorist in individual differences and personality of the 20^th century. His earliest researches on the dimensions of individual differences through multiple work led to the creation of personality research (Taub, 1997). Eysenck’s personality theory gave emphasis on the presence of a continuum on which personality can be assessed, i.e., extraversion versus introversion and neuroticism versus emotional stability. Eysenck’s theory is one of the most influential ones amongst all trait approach theories to personality (Matthews and Gilliland, 1999). Several studies have focused on the personality aspect of individuals (Caspi, Roberts and Shiner, 2005).

Studies have also been conducted to see if personality development occurs in the period of emerging adults (Donnellan, Conger and Burzette, 2007). While study by Donnellan, Conger and Burzette (2007) has shown psychological maturity as the major change seen in adult personality, as per the study rest of the facets of personality are already developed by the period of adulthood. On the contrary, research conducted by Stephan, Sutin and Terracciano (2015) identifies a decline in extraversion, neuroticism and openness, and an increase in conscientiousness and agreeableness. Therefore, it can be said that personality traits exhibited by an individual during childhood may or not be visible during adulthood.

Also personality, from the nurture point of view, considers parenting style as an important factor in understanding its development (Robbins, 1994). Parenting has been defined as “the act of bringing up a child as a parent” (Oxford Dictionary, 1884). According to American Psychological Association, parenting practices across the world share three basic goals. This is to ensure children’s health and safety, to prepare them for life as productive human beings and also to transmit cultural values (American Psychological Association, 1974). There have been plenty of discussions made on the types of parenting styles (Uji, Sakamoto, Adachi and Kitamura, 2013). The major amount of work on parenting and its styles is done by Diana Baumrind (Baumrind, 1966). The three most widely accepted parenting styles by Baumrind include permissive parenting, authoritarian parenting and authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 1966). Later, the typology was extended by Maccoby and Martin who gave a fourth kind of parenting style called the neglectful parenting (Maccoby and Martin, 1983). Studies indicated that parenting styles influence the child’s later development (Phares and Renk, 1998). Authoritarian parenting style was found to positively influence child’s development (Baumrind, 1996), whereas permissive and authoritative parenting was found to have a negative effect on child’s personality and later development (Baumrind, 1996). Most of the studies in parenting style was found to be conducted with children and adolescent group (Arnett and Taber, 1994).

There are ample of studies which talks about the relation between different parenting style and personality formation (White, 2003). Most of the studies were conducted on adolescent population (Meeus, 2011, Wolfradt, Hempel and Miles, 2011). Very limited studies focused on the perception of parenting style and personality formation among emerging adults ( Inguglia, et.al. 2016).

Reviewing articles also indicated that most of the studies on parenting styles and personality (Kern and Jonyniené, 2011) have been limited to the Western population and very minimal studies have been conducted exclusively on the Indian population. Hence, the main objective of the present study was to study and compare perceived parenting style amongst emerging adults with respect to two personality types: extroversion-introversion and neuroticism-emotional stability particularly among Indian emerging adults. Role of gender and age on perceived parenting style of emerging adults were also studied.

As youth plays a major role in the development of a country like India, a study of this sort is very important to understand the root cause of many of their mental and emotional problems and to tackle them at the earliest. The findings of the present study also could be used by people working with parents to educate them about the importance of positive parenting style and the impact of different parenting style on personality formation of an individual. Results also could be used while training youth group to make them aware about different personality traits and the need for having a positive perception on their parents.

OBJECTIVES:

● To study and compare perceived parenting style of emerging adults based on personality type.

● To do a gender wise comparison on perceived parenting style.

● To study and compare perceived parenting style of emerging adults on the basis of three different age group.

Hypothesis:

● There is no significant difference in perceived parenting style of emerging adults based on personality type.

● There is no significant difference between young male and female on perceived parenting style.

● There is no significant difference in perceived parenting style based on three age groups.

METHOD:

Design:

Study utilized a quantitative research design. Here data was collected after administering tools on perceived parenting style and personality type.

Participants:

The participants involved were all of Indian origin and were brought up in different parts of the country. All were residing in the city of Bengaluru for different purposes like studying, working or married life, thus, giving the study a regional yet widespread approach. The participants belonged to the age group of emerging adults which comprises the ages of 18-25. 300 responses were collected out of which 149 were male and 151 were female. Due to the unreliability of data detected in some of the responses, 8 male respondents’ and 14 female respondents’ data was deleted. The end analysis of the study was conducted on 141 male respondents and 137 female respondents.

Measures:

Perception of Parents’ Scale (POPS) (Robbins, 1994)

Perception of Parents’ Scale (POPS) is a self-report measure that records the perception of the child in three different aspects of the parents’ style adopted. It has three versions and the one used for the study is the college student version that can be extended from late adolescents to young adults. The test has three dimensions namely Parental Involvement, Parental Autonomy Support and Parental Warmth for each parent. It was developed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci on Self Determination Theory (which concerns with human motivation, personality and optimal functioning) (Ryan and Deci, 1991).

This version of the test measures the perception of the subject towards the involvement, autonomy support and warmth shown by their parents. The scale has 42 items divided into two halves, 21 each for father and mother. From these 42 items, 6 subscales are calculated. The questionnaire was created by Robert Robbins in the department of Psychology, University of Rochester under the supervision of Richard Ryan. Constructors of the tool have established reliability and validity of the tool (Grolnik, Deci, Ryan, 1997).

Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1964)

Eysenck’s Personality Inventory is a personality inventory that makes use of a two-choice question format (Yes/No answers). The test was derived using factor analysis with precise psychometric properties and has been excessively used in the recent past. It consists of 57 items and derives 3 components from the analysis – Extraversion Scale, Neuroticism Scale and Lie Scale. Results indicate that users of the questionnaire may obtain more meaningful scores on Extraversion and Neuroticism by basing them on the items which load highest on these two components.

The study had 278 subjects with the gender distribution of 141 males and 137 females who belonged to different parts of the country. The age group selected was 18-25 which marks the emerging adulthood period. Although, the original number of subjects was 300, some of the responses were discarded due to unreliable data caused by social desirability.

Demographic data sheet:

To retrieve demographic data from the participants, a tool that enquired about their age, gender and place of origin was also administered. The name and contact email id/number were also collected if the participant was willing to share information regarding these two details.

Procedure:

Researchers personally met respondents between ages 18-25 years and clearly mentioned the aim of the study. After establishing rapport, researchers explained the whole purpose of the study. Only after making sure that participants are comfortable researchers proceeded further. After taking informed consent from participant’s tool on Eysenck’s Personality Inventory, Perception of Parents’ Scale and demographic data sheet were given.

Instructions were given relayed before the participants undertook the questionnaire. The instructions for Perception of Parents’ Scale were as follows- “Kindly go through the questionnaire and each item talks about mother and father. In case of absence of one of your parents and there is another adult of the same gender living in the house, then, answer the questions about that other adult (for example, answer about uncle or stepfather if your father isn't in contact with you”. Instruction for Eysenck Personality Inventory were as follows- “Answer the following questions in respect to how you think, feel and act. Try to decide your answer in a way that represents your usual way of behaving. Work quickly and do not spend much time on any question as we require your first response and not long drawn out thought process”.

Enough time was provided to comfortably complete both the tools. After filling the tools demographic data sheet was also given to get the personal information of participants. All the participants were free to withdraw from the study at any point of time. Once they filled all the tools, questionnaires were thankfully collected. Before leaving, researchers ensured that all the questions are filled with valid responses. Researchers also ensured that all throughout the research process there is no personal or psychological harm to participants. Then data was scored and further analysis was done using SPSS -21 version. t-test and anova was used to analyse the data.

RESULTS:

The aim of the study was to compare perceived parenting style of emerging adults based on personality type, age and gender. Data was collected after administering Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire and Perception of Parents’ Scale. Eysenck’s personality questionnaire includes two personality types. They are extroversion-introversion and neuroticism and emotional stability. Perception of parents scale includes six parenting dimensions. They are mother involvement, mother warmth, mother autonomy support, father involvement, father warmth and father autonomy support. Details of analysis done are given below.

Comparison between extroversion and introversion on perceived parenting style

To test hypothesis (1) which stated that “There is no significant difference in perceived parenting style of emerging adults based on personality types” researchers used t-test on variables of personality traits and parenting dimensions. Here data was collected from 278 emerging adults. Results are reported in table (1) and table (2).

Table 1: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of perceived parenting style based on extraversion and introversion

Group Variable	Extraversion (67)		Introversion (212)		t value
Group Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	t value
Mother Involvement	32.45	7.40	32.93	7.19	.460
Mother Autonomy Support	43.15	11.30	42.22	11.05	.610
Mother Warmth	31.61	7.60	31.75	7.77	.132
Father Involvement	29.48	8.28	27.91	8.29	1.346
Father Autonomy Support	41.41	12.44	41.21	12.14	.123
Father Warmth	30.03	7.76	30.34	7.87	.290

Table (1) shows the result of t- test computed for extraversion and introversion with the six dimensions of parenting styles. The results show that none of the t -values are significant. This could be interpreted as that there is no significant difference between extroverts and introverts in their perception of six types of parenting styles. This also means that extroverts and introverts do not differ in their perception of six different dimensions of parenting styles. Further analysis was done to find a significant difference between neuroticism and emotionally stable group to study on six dimensions of parenting style. Results are given in table (2).

Table 2: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of perceived parenting style for groups formed on emotional stability and neuroticism

Group Variable	Emotionally Stable (153)		Neuroticism (126)		t value
Group Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	t value
Mother Involvement	33.53	6.93	31.96	7.52	1.806
Mother Autonomy Support	43.22	10.86	41.50	11.30	1.278
Mother Warmth	32.58	7.29	30.69	8.12	2.03*
Father Involvement	28.30	8.01	28.28	8.65	.030
Father Autonomy Support	41.60	12.24	40.83	12.17	.528
Father Warmth	30.70	7.54	29.75	8.15	.996

*Significant at 0.05 level

Table 3 indicates that t -values obtained for all the six dimensions are significant. This shows that that there exists significant difference between male and female emerging adults on all the six dimensions of perceived parenting style. When mean scores were compared it was found that females have higher mean score than males on all the six dimensions. Therefore, we can infer that females have greater positive perception of parenting dimensions in comparison to males. Hence from the above results it is understood that the concerned hypothesis is rejected.

Perceived parenting style of emerging adults on the basis of three age groups

To test the hypothesis (3) which stated that “There is no significant difference in perceived parenting style based on three age groups.” one-way ANOVA was done. Here the sample was divided into three groups based on age- Group-1 (18-20 years), Group-2 (21-22 years) and Group-3 (23-25 years). These three age groups were studied with the six parenting styles. Results are given in the table 4.

Table 4 gives the result of one-way ANOVA computed for three groups formed on the basis of age and six parenting dimensions. Results show that for mother autonomy support F-value (3.402), is significant at 0.05 level. This indicated that three groups formed on the basis of age differ significantly in terms of their perception on mother autonomy support. But for rest of the dimensions of perceived parenting style, no significant difference was observed in terms of age difference.

To further find the differences between the three age groups, a post-hoc ‘Scheffe’ test was computed to find which age group had significant difference in mother autonomy. Researchers found that group-1 (18-20 years) and group-3 (23-25 years) to have the most significant difference in perception of mother autonomy support with a mean difference of 3.98. Further, mean score comparison was done to know the highest and lowest perceiving group.

Mean score comparison indicated Group-1 to have highest mean score (44.205) which translates to highest perception of mother autonomy support and Group-3 with lowest mean score (40.222) which translates to lowest perception of mother autonomy support. Therefore, results indicate that the preconceived null hypothesis is partially accepted.

Table 4: F-Value of dimensions of perception of parenting styles on three groups formed on the basis of age

Group Variable	Between Group		Within Group		t value
Group Variable	Sum of Squares	Mean Square	Sum of Squares	Mean Square	t value
Mother Involvement	18.41	9.20	14521.27	52.61	.175
Mother Autonomy Support	820.24	410.12	33276.64	120.57	3.402*
Mother Warmth	136.44	68.22	16415.75	59.48	1.147
Father Involvement	62.42	31.21	19057.06	69.05	.452
Father Autonomy Support	779.08	389.54	40552.34	146.92	2.65
Father Warmth	252.27	126.13	16781.04	60.80	2.07

*Significant at 0.05 level

Table 5: Mean and standard deviation of dimensions of perceived parenting style for groups formed on the basis of age

Group Variable	Group- 1(18-20 Age Group) N =127		Group- 2 (22-23 Age Group) N=71		Group- 3 (23-25 Age Group) N= 81
Group Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation
Mother Involvement	32.811	6.5981	32.451	8.0512	33.148	7.4985
Mother Autonomy Support	44.205	9.8290	41.831	10.9922	40.222	12.5728
Mother Warmth	32.547	7.4905	31.380	7.9109	31.720	7.7162
Father Involvement	28.496	8.2307	28.746	7.7583	27.568	8.8797
Father Autonomy Support	42.976	11.4313	40.648	11.6681	39.099	13.4894
Father Warmth	31.000	7.9172	30.648	6.3608	28.802	8.6969

DISCUSSION:

The main focus of the present investigation was to study and compare the effect of personality types on perception of different parenting styles among emerging adults. Along with this, the aspects of age and gender were also considered. To study on the objectives data was collected from 278 emerging adults.

Using t-test analysis on two personality types and six parenting dimensions, researchers found no significant difference in extraversion-introversion trait and parenting dimensions. But with respect to neuroticism-emotional stability trait significant differences were seen in perception of mother warmth. The mean score comparison between groups indicated that emotionally stable group has higher perception of mother warmth. Previous studies conducted on similar lines asserted that the perception of parenting styles and types of personality are entwined in a strong manner. Goal orientation (Gonzalez, Holbein and Quilter, 2002), depersonalization and anxiety issues (Wolfradt, Hempel and Miles, 2003) and different personality traits (Brand, Hatzinger, Beck and Trachsler, 2009) are some of the many facets of personality explored by researchers that are highly linked to perception of parenting styles in adolescents. The current study, therefore, makes an attempt to link the two variables in emerging adults. Earlier researches suggest that there is no relation between perceived parenting styles and formation of personality (Manzeske and Dopkins, 2009).

The mother warmth dimension in Perception of Parents’ Scale specifies on the bond between mother and child. It is defined as the “emotional responsiveness of the mother to the child” (Robbins, 1994.). Results show that subjects high on emotional stability perceive mother warmth more than neurotic subjects. Emotionally stable individuals are characterised by the ability to cope with general changes in the environment, without responding with an intense emotional reaction (Freyd, 1924). Such individuals usually consider their immediate environment to be safe which could be because of greater perception of mother’s warmth (Otonari et.al, 2011). Another argument can be presented wherein personality is formed and shaped when a person is in adolescent stage itself (Caspi, Shiner and Roberts, 2005). Perception about parents is also well established in childhood stage and hence during emerging adulthood, the youth seem to be more independent and prefer less parental intervention in their daily lives which explains the low perception of mother warmth by neurotic emerging adults (Arnett, 2010). This period is marked by increasing understanding of one’s goals for the future and greater need for independence in choosing for themselves (Hawkins, Letcher, Sanson, Smart and Tombourou, 2009).

Gender wise comparison with six parenting dimensions was also done using t-test. Results obtained for all the six dimension were found significant. This indicated that there exists significant difference between males and females on all the six dimensions of perceived parenting style and females were found to be having higher mean scores than male participants. This could be interpreted as parenting to have comparatively greater positive impact on girls than boys which has supportive evidence from previous studies (Simons, Beaman, Conger and Chao, 1993). Present study also found that females have a greater positive perception of parenting dimensions in comparison to males.

Emerging adults of different age groups differed significantly in terms of their perception of parenting dimensions particularly in mother autonomy support. Mean score differences revealed 18-20 year olds to have greatest perception of mother autonomy and 23-25 year olds to have least perception of mother autonomy support. Reasons for this can vary from greater freedom provided to children during late adolescent years and conducive environment for taking their own decisions leading to greater attachment to parent (Brenning, Soenens, Petegem and Vansteenkiste, 2015). Psychological control is considered as the opposite of autonomy support were the parent pressurises child to comply to their ideas through manipulation. Therefore, emerging adults between the ages of 23-25 is observed to perceive less autonomy support because of their conflicting ideas of lifestyle choices, relationship status and decision-making, a conflict that arises out of generational gap between parent and emerging adult (Inguglia et al., 2016).

All supporting evidence for personality development and parenting style has been conducted on adolescent age groups (Gonida and Urdan, 2007). Since this study has tried to analyse personality associated with emerging adult group, more studies have to be conducted for this specific age group to get a better understanding of differences in personality and its effect on the perception of parenting.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:

Through the current study researchers are trying to compare perceived parenting style of emerging adults based on two personality type, gender and three age groups. The sample consisted of 278 subjects between the ages of 18 and 25 known as emerging adults. Results of the study revealed no significant difference between extraverts and introverts in their perception of parenting dimensions. On the other hand emerging adults with emotionally stable personality trait were found to perceive greater mother warmth when compared with emerging adults with neurotic personality trait. Further, it was seen that females have a more positive perception on parenting dimensions when compared to males. This can be interpreted as that females have more stable and positive perception towards parents when compared to males. Age-wise comparison indicated that emerging adults between 18-20 years of age perceived greatest mother autonomy support and emerging adults between 23-25 years of age perceived least mother autonomy support. This could be interpreted as that individuals in their late teens usually undergo a phase of newfound freedom with the shift from school to college. Hence, they perceived autonomy support greater than other age groups. Conversely, 23-25 year olds have very different ideas of freedom and lifestyle choices as compared to their parents. Therefore, they have less perception of autonomy support. The findings of the present study implied that parents need to understand their children’s needs. Also the results can be used to compare changes in an individual from adolescence to adulthood by looking at the phase of “emerging adulthood”. Finally, this study can be a stepping stone for further psychological research on the Indian population and especially on emerging adults.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

The research was supported by CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bangalore, India. We thank University for supporting us in the research process and also extend our gratitude to all those who took part in the study and provided us with interesting insights.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

ETHICAL APPROVAL:

“All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.”

INFORMED CONSENT:

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Received on 26.06.2018 Modified on 09.07.2018

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2018; 9(3): 645-651.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5828.2018.00108.0

Group Variable	Male (141)		Female (137)		t value
Group Variable	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	t value
Mother Involvement	31.89	7.85	33.74	6.44	2.153**
Mother Autonomy Support	40.80	11.69	44.24	10.12	2.169**
Mother Warmth	30.51	8.05	33.04	7.13	2.774**
Father Involvement	26.64	8.26	30.08	7.93	3.544**
Father Autonomy Support	38.40	12.56	44.36	10.94	4.209**
Father Warmth	28.29	7.34	32.38	7.80	4.502**